What role did Heraklion play during the Arab, Venetian, and Ottoman periods?

During the Arab, Venetian, and Ottoman periods, the city of Heraklion—historically known by various names—served as a central hub for the island of Crete.

• Arab Period: In the 9th century CE, the city served as the capital of Saracen Crete. During this time, it was known as Khandaq (meaning "Moat"), a name that reflects its strategic importance and defensive infrastructure.1
• Venetian Period: Following the sale of Crete to Venice in 1204, the city’s name was corrupted to Candia. The Venetians established an extensive system of fortifications around the city, much of which survives today. Under Venetian rule, the city became the site of a flourishing Italo-Hellenic literary and political culture, though the administration was often viewed as oppressive.12
• Ottoman Period: In 1669, after a siege lasting more than 20 years, the city was ceded to the Turks and renamed Megalokastro. During this long occupation, which lasted until 1897, the harbor was permitted to silt up, causing the city to lose its commercial preeminence to Chaniá.1