How many people were killed during the Nanjing Massacre according to historical estimates?

Historical estimates regarding the number of people killed during the Nanjing Massacre typically range from 100,000 to more than 300,000 individuals.12

The exact death toll remains a subject of significant historical and political debate. These discrepancies in estimates often arise from differing methodologies, including disagreements over the geographic scope of the events, the specific time frame considered, and whether the total includes the execution of prisoners of war.1

The massacre, which occurred between December 1937 and January 1938 following the Japanese Imperial Army's seizure of Nanjing, is recognized as one of the most devastating episodes of civilian mass killing in the 20th century. The atrocities committed against Chinese citizens and soldiers remain a profound moral tragedy that continues to influence diplomatic relations between China and Japan today.12