How do particles function in Polynesian grammar?

In Polynesian grammar, particles are small, independent words that serve as essential grammatical markers. Rather than being attached to other words, these particles stand either before or after the terms they modify to indicate various grammatical relationships.1

Their function is comparable in some respects to the roles played by prepositions, conjunctions, and articles in English. Because Polynesian languages often lack complex inflectional morphology, these particles are fundamental to defining the structure and meaning of sentences. While some Austronesian languages utilize complex focus systems involving affixes, Polynesian languages are notable for their reliance on this system of particles to navigate grammatical functions.12