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How did the popes maintain control of their territories during the Middle Ages?

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Side-by-side maps of central Italy showing the changing boundaries of the Papal States. The left map highlights the Papal States after the Treaty of Vienna in 1815 in green, showing their greatest extent. The right map shows the Papal States' reduced territory just before absorption into Italy, with orange marking areas annexed in 1860 and yellow showing the final area annexed in 1870, centered ar — Papal States The Papal States in 1815 (left) and at their annexation by Italy in 1870.

During the Middle Ages, popes maintained control over their territories through a combination of strategic alliances, military campaigns, and administrative reform.

Alliances for Protection: Faced with threats from the Lombards and declining Byzantine support, the papacy sought new protectors. The Donation of Pippin in 756 established the Papal States through an alliance with the Carolingian monarchy, which provided military force to secure papal lands.12
Military Intervention: When authority was challenged, popes employed trusted military leaders to reconquer territories. For example, Gil Cardinal Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz led a successful 10-year campaign (1353–1363) to reassert control after the papacy moved to Avignon.3
Political Maneuvering: Popes often exploited rivalries between secular powers, such as the conflict between the Hohenstaufen and Otto IV, to promote and secure territorial claims.3
Administrative Centralization: By the 12th and 13th centuries, the papacy evolved into a sophisticated administrative and legal institution, using its court to exercise jurisdiction and manage its vast estates.2