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How did running water shape much of the modern Carpathian landscape?

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Carpathian Mountains; cross section of the Western Carpathians — Carpathian Mountains Regional division of the Carpathian Mountains (top) and a geologic cross section of the Western Carpathians (bottom). The location of the cross section is shown by the line N–S on the map.

Running water has been the primary force shaping the modern landscape of the Carpathian Mountains, as the region was largely spared the extensive glacial erosion that defined other mountain chains like the Alps.1

During the Cenozoic Era, repeated orogenic movements uplifted the folded mountain chain. This tectonic activity left behind fragmentary, flat-topped relief forms at various altitudes and created deeply incised gap valleys that dissect the mountain ranges. Rivers have played a critical role in this evolution by carving these gaps, most notably seen in the development of the Danube River valley and its tributaries, such as the Váh, Hernád, and Olt rivers.2

While glaciers were limited to the highest peaks, the action of running water has remained the dominant agent of erosion throughout the region's history, continuously modifying the relief and drainage patterns that characterize the modern Carpathian landscape.21