How did glaciers change the northern Appalachian Mountains?

During the Pleistocene Epoch, continental ice sheets significantly reshaped the northern Appalachian Mountains through several geological processes.1

As these massive ice sheets moved across the region, they stripped away topsoil, ground down and polished specific mountain peaks, and deepened and straightened existing valleys. The glaciers also deposited rock debris and random boulders across the landscape and along the coasts. In some areas, the glaciers left behind end moraines, which now form offshore banks and islands near New England, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland.12

Beyond these physical alterations, the advancing ice forced plant and animal life to migrate southward to survive. The southern Appalachians served as a vital refuge for these species, allowing them to reseed northern areas once the glaciers retreated.1