How did Ottoman and Persian rule affect the Armenian people?

Under both Ottoman and Persian rule, the Armenian people maintained a strong communal identity through the Armenian Apostolic Church and their language, despite often serving as a buffer between these two competing powers.123

Ottoman Rule

Within the Ottoman Empire, Armenians were classified as zimmīs (non-Muslims) and managed their internal affairs through the millet system. While some Armenians achieved prominence in commerce and government, life for the majority was often difficult and unpredictable. They faced systemic disadvantages, including biased local courts and harassment from dominant Kurdish populations. By the 19th century, rising nationalism and the perception of Armenians as a "foreign element" led to increased suspicion, culminating in the Hamidian massacres and further violence in the early 20th century.132

Persian Rule

Under Persian control, Armenians were sometimes forcibly relocated to stimulate trade, such as the 1604–05 transfer of Armenians to Isfahan. These merchants became vital economic links between Europe and the East. However, this prosperity often invited envy and excessive taxation, leading to a gradual decline in their influence. In some mountainous regions, such as Karabakh, Armenians managed to conserve local autonomy for periods under their own maliks (princes).1