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How did Napoleon take control of papal territories in 1797?

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Side-by-side maps of central Italy showing the changing boundaries of the Papal States. The left map highlights the Papal States after the Treaty of Vienna in 1815 in green, showing their greatest extent. The right map shows the Papal States' reduced territory just before absorption into Italy, with orange marking areas annexed in 1860 and yellow showing the final area annexed in 1870, centered ar — Papal States The Papal States in 1815 (left) and at their annexation by Italy in 1870.

In 1797, Napoleon Bonaparte secured control over papal territories through military force and subsequent diplomatic coercion. Following the defeat of Austrian forces in the Italian theater, Napoleon launched a swift campaign against the ill-prepared Papal States.1

This military pressure forced Pope Pius VI to sign the Peace of Tolentino on February 19, 1797. Under the terms of this treaty, the Pope was compelled to:12

Abandon his claim to Avignon.1
Pay a significant financial indemnity.1
Surrender various works of art.1
Cede the territories of Romagna and the legations of Bologna and Ferrara.1

These ceded territories were subsequently incorporated into the Cisalpine Republic, a new state established under French control. This action marked a significant erosion of papal temporal authority, setting the stage for the further French occupation of Rome and the proclamation of the Roman Republic in 1798.312