How did Mongol rule change the administration of China and Persia?

Mongol rule significantly altered the administration of China and Persia by integrating indigenous bureaucratic traditions with nomadic military structures, though the implementation varied based on local conditions.

China

Under the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols established a centralized bureaucracy modeled on Chinese lines, featuring the Central Secretariat and six traditional ministries. However, they maintained a distinct ethnic hierarchy, dividing the population into four classes: Mongols, semuren (foreigners), hanren (northern Chinese), and nanren (southern Chinese). High administrative offices were typically reserved for non-Chinese, and the Mongols relied on interpreters because few ruling elites mastered the Chinese language.12

Persia

In the Il-Khanid dynasty, the Mongols adopted a military patronage state, relying on Persian-speaking bureaucrats to manage the administration. While they initially imposed heavy taxes and tribal laws (yasa), later rulers like Mahmud Ghazan converted to Islam and implemented reforms to regulate taxation, encourage agriculture, and curb military abuses. Unlike in China, the Il-Khans eventually sought to reconcile Mongol tribal law with the sharia to stabilize their rule over a predominantly Muslim population.34