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How did Lombard threats shape the early history of the Papal States?

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Side-by-side maps of central Italy showing the changing boundaries of the Papal States. The left map highlights the Papal States after the Treaty of Vienna in 1815 in green, showing their greatest extent. The right map shows the Papal States' reduced territory just before absorption into Italy, with orange marking areas annexed in 1860 and yellow showing the final area annexed in 1870, centered ar — Papal States The Papal States in 1815 (left) and at their annexation by Italy in 1870.

Lombard threats were a primary catalyst for the emergence of the Papal States as an independent temporal power. Throughout the 8th century, the Byzantine Empire proved increasingly unable to defend its Italian territories against the Lombards, particularly under the militaristic king Aistulf, who seized the imperial capital of Ravenna in 751.123

Faced with this existential threat and disillusioned by Byzantine policies, such as iconoclasm and heavy taxation, the papacy sought a new protector. Pope Stephen II turned to the Frankish king Pippin III, who intervened militarily in 754 and 756 to defeat the Lombards.132

Following these victories, Pippin granted the papacy control over territories previously held by the Byzantine exarchate, an act known as the Donation of Pippin. This alliance fundamentally shifted the papacy's political orientation from East to West, establishing the foundation for the pope's temporal authority in central Italy.123