How did Karakum Desert residents obtain water before modern irrigation?

Traditionally, the inhabitants of the Karakum Desert relied on two primary methods to secure water before the advent of modern irrigation systems:

• Deep Wells: Residents dug deep wells to access groundwater sources beneath the desert surface.1
• Rainwater Catchment: Inhabitants utilized specific catchment areas designed to collect and store rainwater for their needs.1

These methods allowed the population to sustain their traditional lifestyle of nomadic pastoralism and fishing along the shores of the Amu Darya and the Caspian Sea before the region transitioned to modern agricultural and industrial practices.1