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How did Cyrus II overthrow the Median king Astyages?

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Map showing the extent of the Achaemenid Empire during the 6th and 5th centuries BC, shaded in light green and spanning from the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt through the Middle East to parts of Central Asia and the Indus Valley. Major regions, cities, and trade routes such as the Royal Road are labeled within the empire's boundaries.
ancient Iran

Cyrus II, king of Anshan, initiated a conflict against the Median king Astyages in 553 BCE. The overthrow of the Median Empire culminated in 550 BCE when Median troops rebelled against their ruler.1

Historical accounts provide different perspectives on how this transition occurred:

  • Military Rebellion: According to Babylonian inscriptions, the Median army turned against Astyages, leading to his capture. Cyrus subsequently occupied and plundered the Median capital, Ecbatana.1
  • Defection of Leadership: The Median general Harpagus, who had been sent by Astyages to suppress the rebellion, deserted his king and joined forces with Cyrus. Some scholars suggest this betrayal was motivated by revenge for Astyages’ murder of Harpagus’ son.2
  • Popular Support: Other accounts suggest that Cyrus encouraged the Medes to rise against their ruler, and upon invading their territory, he was welcomed by the populace as a liberator.3

Following the collapse of the Median state, Cyrus established the Achaemenian Empire, marking a pivotal shift in the history of ancient Iran.4