Why did Armenian villagers have little legal protection in the Ottoman Empire?

Armenian villagers in the Ottoman Empire faced significant legal disadvantages that left them with little protection, particularly in Eastern Anatolia.1

The primary reasons for this lack of legal recourse included:

• Bias in the Judicial System: Local courts and judges frequently favored Muslims over non-Muslims. In legal proceedings, the testimony of a Muslim was often given greater weight than that of a Christian. Consequently, when Armenians were victims of violence or had their land, livestock, or property seized, they had little effective recourse to seek justice.12
• Social and Political Marginalization: Armenians were often perceived as a foreign element within the empire, leading to suspicion and resentment among the dominant Muslim population. This tension was exacerbated by the activities of revolutionary groups, which stoked fear and anxiety among Muslims, further isolating Armenian communities.31
• Vulnerability to Local Powers: In regions like Eastern Anatolia, Armenians lived intermixed with dominant Kurdish nomads, from whom they often received harsh treatment. The central government’s ability or willingness to intervene in these local conflicts was often limited, leaving villagers vulnerable to exploitation and violence.1