What were the main causes of the Iranian Revolution of 1978–79?

The Iranian Revolution of 1978–79 was driven by a convergence of deep-seated socioeconomic grievances and political repression under the regime of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi.1

Key factors included:

• Economic Instability: Despite rapid growth, the Shah’s White Revolution and heavy government spending led to high inflation and stagnant living standards. Poorly managed land reforms disrupted rural economies, fueling migration to cities where new arrivals faced a cultural vacuum and unemployment.12
• Political Repression: The regime stifled political participation, outlawed opposition parties, and relied on SAVAK to enforce censorship, surveillance, and the use of torture against dissidents.12
• Social and Cultural Discontent: The Shah’s aggressive Westernization policies alienated traditional segments of society, particularly the Shiʿi ulama, who saw these reforms as an attack on Islamic values.13
• Foreign Influence: The Shah’s close ties to the United States and Israel, along with the legacy of the 1953 coup against Mohammad Mosaddegh, fueled nationalist and religious resentment.12

These tensions united diverse groups—including secular intellectuals, the Tūdeh Party, and the clergy—under the leadership of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, whose populist rhetoric against the regime resonated with the masses.12