How did Khomeini organize opposition to the shah from Iraq and France?

During his years in exile, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini effectively organized and coordinated opposition to the shah by leveraging his status as a religious authority to unite diverse dissident groups, including the secular left and conservative clerics, under the banner of Shiʿi Islam.123

While living in Iraq and later in France (following his expulsion from Iraq in 1978), Khomeini utilized a sophisticated communication network to reach the Iranian populace. He formulated and promulgated his theories of velāyat-e faqīh (guardianship of the jurist), which provided the ideological foundation for an Islamic republic.12

To bypass the shah’s censorship and maintain his influence, Khomeini’s supporters smuggled thousands of tape-recorded messages and printed copies of his speeches back into Iran. These messages, which denounced the shah’s regime as irreligious and subservient to foreign powers, were relayed to an increasingly aroused public, fueling the massive demonstrations, strikes, and civil unrest that ultimately forced the shah to flee the country in January 1979.312