Why was it difficult for Abd el-Krim to unite Rifian groups?

Uniting the various Rifian groups proved difficult for Abd el-Krim because of the region's fragmented social structure and historical complexities. The Rif were traditionally organized into 19 distinct kinship-based social units, each governed by its own council of fighters, which made centralized political cohesion challenging.12

Furthermore, Abd el-Krim’s family background created initial friction. His father had previously served as a qāḍī (Islamic judge) and maintained a long-standing relationship with Spanish authorities as a moro amigo ("friendly Moor"), receiving stipends for providing intelligence. This history fostered deep distrust among some of his fellow Berbers, who viewed the family's prior cooperation with colonial powers with suspicion.3

To overcome these divisions and secure support for his campaign against colonial rule, Abd el-Krim had to employ a combination of his persuasive skills and direct force. These efforts eventually enabled him to transition from a tribal-based society to a centralized bureaucracy, leading to the establishment of the Republic of the Rif in 1923.1