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Why was Charlemagne’s conquest of Saxony so difficult?

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Painting by Albrecht Durer of Charlemagne in ornate coronation robes and crown, holding a sword and orb, with gold embroidery and regal symbols behind him. — Charlemagne Charlemagne, oil on limewood by Albrecht Dürer, 1512; in the collection of the German National Museum, Nürnberg, Germany.

Charlemagne’s conquest of Saxony was exceptionally difficult, spanning over 30 years of intermittent warfare (772–804), primarily due to the following factors:

Lack of Political Unity: Unlike the Bavarians, the Saxons were not a unified state. They consisted of independent nobles (edhelingi) living on scattered estates. This decentralized structure meant there was no single central authority to defeat or negotiate with to secure a lasting surrender.12
Absence of Natural Barriers: There were no significant geographical obstacles to prevent Saxon raids into the Frankish hinterlands of Franconia and Thuringia, making it difficult for the Franks to establish a stable defensive line.12
Persistent Resistance: Whenever the Frankish army was occupied elsewhere, the Saxons frequently revolted, killing Frankish officials and priests. This forced Charlemagne to repeatedly return to punish tribes and garrison defense points.12
Religious and Cultural Conflict: Charlemagne’s efforts to impose Christianity and Frankish dominance through forced conversions and brutal measures—such as the execution of 4,500 Saxons at Verden—fueled deep-seated resentment and resistance.12

Even after the leader Widukind surrendered and was baptized, it took another 20 years before the region was finally subdued.12