Why did the new Republic of China struggle to establish stable national rule after 1912?

The Republic of China struggled to establish stable national rule after 1912 primarily because it lacked a foundation for democratic governance and was quickly fractured by competing military interests.1

Following the 1911 revolution, the presidency was held by Yuan Shikai, an autocrat who prioritized military power over constitutional procedures. Yuan’s tenure set a destabilizing precedent by dissolving parliament, suppressing political opposition, and relying on military force to maintain control. His death in 1916 left a power vacuum that led to the rise of warlordism, where independent military commanders controlled various provinces, taxed the populace, and engaged in constant conflict for territory and resources.123456

Because no single authority could subordinate these rival factions, the country remained fractured. While Sun Yat-sen and the Nationalist Party attempted to build a revolutionary base in the south, national reunification was not achieved until 1928, when Chiang Kai-shek incorporated many warlords into his army rather than eliminating their local influence entirely.65