Why did Ming rule in Annam face continuing resistance?

Ming rule in Annam (present-day Vietnam) faced persistent resistance primarily because the Ming dynasty attempted to impose direct administrative control and forced assimilation policies on a population that had a long-standing tradition of independence and resistance to foreign domination.123

Following the Yongle emperor's 1406 military intervention—prompted by the murder of his envoys and appeals from Tran dynasty loyalists—the Ming transformed the region into a Chinese province in 1407. This move triggered immediate and irrepressible local opposition. The resistance was fueled by the Ming government's efforts to suppress local customs and enforce Chinese political and cultural institutions, which alienated the Vietnamese people and their leaders.213

By 1418, this opposition had escalated into widespread guerrilla warfare, making the Chinese position increasingly precarious. Ultimately, the Ming government’s inability to pacify the region led to the realization that the occupation was unsustainable, resulting in the abandonment of direct rule in 1428.24