Why did Herbert Spencer believe cooperation in industrial societies was voluntary?

Herbert Spencer distinguished between military and industrial societies based on how they organized human cooperation. He believed that in industrial societies, cooperation is voluntary and spontaneous because these systems are rooted in individualism, which he considered a civilized and positive state of development.1

Unlike military societies, where cooperation is secured through force and despotism, Spencer argued that industrial society functions through a complex division of labour where order is achieved without central planning. He viewed society as existing for the benefit of its individual members rather than the members existing for the benefit of the state. Consequently, he believed that the interactions within an industrial order are delicately adjusted to the needs of all parties involved, reflecting a system where individuals participate freely rather than under the coercion of a governing authority. This perspective was central to his advocacy for laissez-faire economics and a minimal state, which he argued best promoted individual competition and societal progress.12