What topics did Bernard Williams address in Making Sense of Humanity?

Making Sense of Humanity (1995) is a collection of essays by the English philosopher Bernard Williams. In this work, Williams explores themes central to his broader philosophical project, specifically addressing the nature of morality and the limits of objectivity in ethical theory.

The essays in this volume contribute to his ongoing critique of moral theories that rely on impartiality or universal validity, such as utilitarianism and the tradition established by Immanuel Kant. Williams argues that such theories often fail to account for the contingency, complexity, and individuality of human life. He emphasizes that practical reasons for action must be internal—derived from a person's existing motives—rather than imposed by external, universal standards. Furthermore, the collection touches upon his defense of a limited form of ethical relativism, suggesting that moral truths are often local and historically contingent rather than timeless.