What painting techniques did Giotto use for his frescoes and panel paintings?

Giotto, a pivotal figure in 14th-century Italian painting, was renowned for his mastery of both fresco and tempera techniques.12

Fresco Painting

Giotto utilized the traditional fresco method, which involved applying pigments to fresh, wet lime plaster. As the plaster dried, the pigments became chemically integrated into the wall surface, ensuring great durability. This technique required the artist to work quickly while the plaster remained moist, as corrections were difficult to make once the surface set. His work, such as that found in the Arena Chapel, demonstrated a sophisticated ability to translate narrative sequences into expressive, monumental compositions.23

Tempera Painting

For his panel paintings, Giotto employed tempera, a medium where powdered pigments were bound with an adhesive vehicle, typically egg yolk. This process involved a laborious preparation of the wood support with gesso to create a smooth, reflective white surface. Colors were applied in thin, semitransparent washes, often requiring crosshatching to achieve tonal modeling. These works were frequently enriched with gold leaf backgrounds, reflecting the influence of the Byzantine tradition while moving toward greater realism and spatial depth.42