What happened when a city refused to surrender to Genghis Khan’s forces?

When a city refused to surrender to Genghis Khan’s forces, it faced systematic destruction and extreme violence as part of a deliberate strategy of psychological warfare.1

The Mongols typically offered cities the chance to surrender voluntarily, in which case the population was often spared and sometimes incorporated into the Mongol forces. However, if a city chose to resist, the consequences were severe:2

• Wholesale Slaughter: The Mongols frequently carried out the methodical massacre of the inhabitants.12
• Enslavement: Those who were not killed were often enslaved, with the exception of individuals possessing special skills or abilities—such as craftsmen—who were considered useful to the Mongol Empire.2
• Forced Service: In some instances, survivors were forced to serve as advance troops for the Mongol army, compelling them to fight against their own people.3
• Destruction of Infrastructure: Beyond the loss of life, the Mongols often laid waste to fields, gardens, and irrigation systems, effectively destroying the economic and agricultural foundations of the region.3

This "frightfulness" was intended to sap the morale of other cities, often paralyzing them with terror and encouraging surrender.1