What does the term pathetic fallacy mean in John Ruskin’s criticism?

In his work Modern Painters (1843–60), John Ruskin coined the term pathetic fallacy to describe the poetic practice of attributing human emotions, traits, or responses to nature, animals, or inanimate objects. Examples of this include describing winds as "cruel" or flowers as "smiling".123

While this form of personification has been a long-standing convention in literature—often required in forms like the pastoral elegy—Ruskin viewed the excessive use of the pathetic fallacy as a sign of an inferior poet. He believed that such projections were a departure from objective reality, though the device remained a significant subject of his critical inquiry into the nature of landscape painting and artistic expression.12