How had territorial rulers and independent cities weakened imperial authority before Maximilian I’s reign?

Before the reign of Maximilian I, imperial authority had been in decline since the mid-13th century, as weak emperors became preoccupied with domestic and foreign struggles. This power vacuum allowed real authority to shift toward territorial rulers and independent cities.1

Territorial princes increasingly consolidated power within their own lands, often treating them as private possessions and working to build their own power bases rather than supporting imperial unity. These rulers frequently clashed with their own assemblies of estates (Landst\u00e4nde), which sought to limit princely taxation and influence government policy. Meanwhile, many cities gained the status of imperial cities, becoming practically independent entities that could wage war, make peace, and govern without outside interference. These cities often formed defensive leagues (St\u00e4dteb\u00fcnde) to protect their autonomy against the encroachment of local princes.123

By the time Maximilian ascended the throne in 1493, the empire lacked a central authority, and power had become increasingly particularized among these regional actors.41