How did racism and imperialism influence Muhammad Iqbal’s views on European nationalism?

Muhammad Iqbal’s perspective on European nationalism was significantly shaped by his time in Europe between 1905 and 1908. While his early poetry had affirmed Indian nationalism, his experiences abroad led him to criticize the concept of nationalism, which he concluded had fostered destructive racism and imperialism in Europe.1

Iqbal viewed these European developments as inherently divisive and harmful. Consequently, he shifted his focus toward a Pan-Islamic direction, advocating for unity and reform within the Muslim world rather than aligning with the nationalist models he observed in the West. He argued that nationalism was not a suitable foundation for social and political organization, particularly in India, where he believed it lacked a common purpose. Instead, he emphasized the importance of Islamic ideals of brotherhood and justice as a more effective basis for community and self-realization.1