How did Kublai Khan’s government treat Buddhism and other religions?

Kublai Khan’s government maintained a policy of religious toleration, though it granted significant economic and political privileges to specific faiths, most notably Tibetan Buddhism.12

Religious Policy and Privileges

Kublai Khan and other Mongol rulers extended fiscal privileges—such as exemptions from taxes and corvée labor—to the clergy of various religions. However, Buddhism received particular favor; temples were granted generous donations of land and peasants to support their upkeep. Kublai appointed the Tibetan lama 'Phags-pa as imperial preceptor, establishing a "dual principle" that recognized the parity of power between the state and the Buddhist religious leadership.12345

Impact and Resentment

This preferential treatment created significant social friction:
* Tibetan Influence: The high status and perceived arrogance of Tibetan lamas, who oversaw government agencies for Buddhist affairs in both northern and southern China, caused deep resentment among the Chinese population.31
* Inter-religious Rivalry: While the Mongol court remained open-minded, competition existed between Buddhists and Daoists. Under previous khans, disputes over occupied temples led to imperial rulings favoring the return of properties to Buddhist institutions.2
* Societal Strain: The tax-exempt status of monasteries attracted many to monastic life for utilitarian reasons, leading to a massive increase in the number of monks, which further strained the economy and fueled public discontent.3