How did Johann Gottfried von Herder challenge the idea that some cultures are inferior to others?

Johann Gottfried von Herder challenged the notion of cultural hierarchy by developing the concepts of cultural relativism and historicism. He posited that every culture possesses a distinct collective identity, or Volksseele ("ethnic soul"), which must be understood and evaluated within its own unique context rather than against an external standard, such as the Enlightenment ideal of rationality.12

Herder argued that a culture’s language, traditions, and history constitute its "heart and soul," and he explicitly resisted the idea that any specific age or Volk (people) is inferior to another. By elevating the importance of social and cultural history over political or diplomatic history, he countered the cultural chauvinism prevalent in his time—particularly the tendency to grade societies based on their proximity to European Enlightenment standards.23

For Herder, the "primitive" or "poetic" stages of a nation were not inferior; rather, they were periods where the creative power of language and human expression appeared in their greatest purity. His work affirmed the inherent value of all cultures, establishing a foundation for modern cultural anthropology.243