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How did Jawaharlal Nehru bring Goa under Indian control in 1961?

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Jawaharlal Nehru, c. 1930s — Jawaharlal Nehru As India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru was in office for more than 16 years, making him the country's longest-serving prime minister.

Following India's independence in 1947, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru sought to integrate the remaining foreign-controlled territories into the nation. While the British and French had withdrawn peacefully, Portugal refused to cede its colonial holdings in India.12

Nehru initially attempted to resolve the issue through diplomatic persuasion and nonviolent means. In 1955, he permitted unarmed Indian satyagrahis (nonviolent resisters) to march into Goa; however, Portuguese authorities responded with force, resulting in numerous casualties. Despite this, Nehru exercised restraint for six years, continuing to appeal to Portugal's Western allies to facilitate a peaceful transfer.32

By December 1961, after border clashes intensified and diplomatic efforts failed, Nehru declared that India’s patience was exhausted. On December 18, 1961, Indian troops, supported by naval and air forces, invaded and occupied Goa, Daman, and Diu. Active resistance ended the following day, and the territories were subsequently incorporated into India. Nehru maintained that his government was not committed to nonviolence as an absolute policy in this context.132