How did Giotto create a sense of space in St. Francis Receiving the Stigmata?

In his fresco St. Francis Receiving the Stigmata, Giotto creates a sense of space without relying on a technical knowledge of perspective or anatomy. Instead, he achieves this spatial effect through the following methods:1

• Weight and Presence: Giotto indicates space by emphasizing the physical weight of the figures, particularly the seated monk, which gives them a tangible presence within the scene.1
• Landscape and Light: The rocky landscape is depicted as glowing with the light of revelation, which helps define the environment surrounding the figures.1
• Narrative Focus: By focusing on the essential elements of the story—such as the rays from the vision falling onto the hands and feet of St. Francis of Assisi—Giotto creates a dramatic and economical composition that effectively encloses the figures within their setting.12

These techniques allowed Giotto to move away from the rigid stylization of medieval art, breaking new ground in realism and establishing a foundation for the Renaissance tradition of pictorial space.13