How did Duccio make the Madonna and Child in the Rucellai Madonna appear more three-dimensional?

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Duccio: The Virgin Enthroned with the Child, Surrounded by the Patrons of Siena, Angels, and Saints — Duccio *The Virgin Enthroned with the Child, Surrounded by the Patrons of Siena, Angels, and Saints*, central panel of the *Maestà*, tempera on wood panel by Duccio, 1308–11; in the Siena Opera della Metropolitana, Italy.

In the Rucellai Madonna, Duccio employed chiaroscuro—the use of light and dark shading—to create the illusion of three-dimensionality in the figures of the Madonna and the infant Christ.1

By applying this technique, Duccio moved beyond traditional flat representations, giving the bodies a more realistic and substantial form. This approach, combined with the way the Christ child sits convincingly in the Madonna’s lap and gestures toward her, marked a significant innovation in the painting styles of that era.1