How did Bernard Williams criticize utilitarianism?

Bernard Williams was a prominent critic of utilitarianism, arguing that its demand for impartiality and its focus on universal moral standards are fundamentally misguided.1

His primary objections included:

• Threat to Integrity: Williams argued that the impersonal nature of utilitarian standards undermines the personal projects and commitments that provide an individual’s life with meaning. He believed that attempting to transcend one's own point of view to act as an impartial agent is essentially absurd and often leads to self-deception.1
• Rejection of External Reasons: Williams maintained that practical reasons for action must be internal—derived from a person's existing motives—rather than external, as utilitarianism often requires.1
• Limits of Objectivity: He challenged the ambition of discovering a universally valid moral theory, suggesting that moral judgments are historically contingent and local rather than timeless.1

By emphasizing the importance of the personal point of view, Williams influenced later moral philosophy, forcing many theorists to better accommodate individual integrity within their frameworks.1