How did Bernard Williams criticize ethical theories based on impartiality?

Bernard Williams criticized ethical theories based on impartiality—such as utilitarianism and the tradition of Immanuel Kant—by arguing that the ambition to transcend one's personal point of view in the practical domain is fundamentally misguided and absurd.1

Williams contended that such theories fail to account for the contingency, complexity, and individuality of human life. His core objections include:1

• Integrity and Meaning: He argued that impersonal moral standards undermine the integrity of personal projects and relationships, which are essential to giving life its meaning.1
• Internal Reasons: Williams maintained that practical reasons for action must be internal, meaning they must derive from a person's existing motives rather than being imposed by external, universal rational requirements.1
• The "Absurdity" of Impartiality: He believed that attempting to eliminate the "perspectival peculiarities" of an individual's point of view is akin to trying to live a life while stripping away the very fact that it is one's own life.1

Ultimately, Williams held that moral truth is often local and historically contingent, rather than universal or timeless.1