How were Portuguese romanceiro ballads preserved and spread?

The romanceiro consists of a collection of anonymous ballads that emerged in Portuguese literature, typically dating from the 15th century onward. Unlike courtly verse, these ballads incorporated themes of adventure, war, and chivalry alongside traditional subjects like love and religion.1

The preservation and spread of the romanceiro relied primarily on oral transmission. This tradition was kept alive by performers who passed the ballads down through generations, allowing them to spread across Europe and North Africa, particularly following the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the late 15th century.1

Because these ballads thrived among the people and were recreated from memory during each performance, they were subject to constant variation. This process of oral tradition preserves ballads by re-creating them rather than through exact reproduction, ensuring they remained relevant to the emotional needs and beliefs of their audiences. While the romanceiro saw a later "artificial flowering" from known poets in the 16th and 17th centuries, its core existence remained rooted in this dynamic, anonymous folk tradition.21