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How was ivory used in furniture and religious objects in the Middle East and Muslim-ruled Spain?

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Inupiat shaman's figure. — ivory carving Kinugumiut Inupiat incised walrus ivory shaman's figure, c. 1890; in the National Museum of the American Indian, George Gustav Heye Center, Smithsonian Institution, New York City.

In the Middle East and Muslim-ruled Spain, ivory was used extensively as a decorative medium to embellish a variety of objects. Artisans utilized ivory to adorn furniture, doors, and caskets, as well as minbars (pulpits used in religious settings).1

The decorative style applied to these pieces typically featured geometric patterns and plant-form arabesques, which were sometimes inhabited by depictions of birds and animals. In Muslim-ruled Spain specifically, a distinct tradition of ivory carving flourished from the late 10th century onward, producing high-quality objects often commissioned for princes. These carvings are notable for incorporating themes from the broader vocabulary of princely art, demonstrating that the practice of sculpture in the round persisted in the Islamic world through the creation of these smaller, intricate works.12