How did printing, translation, and European education contribute to modern Persian literature?

The modernization of Persian literature in the 19th and 20th centuries was significantly driven by increased contact with Europe, which facilitated the adoption of new technologies, educational models, and literary forms.1

• Printing Press: The reintroduction and widespread use of the printing press were essential for the efficient spread of information and the modernization of the written language. Presses, such as the Kaviani Press in Berlin, allowed for the publication of new, accessible prose and revolutionary texts that reached a wider public than traditional manuscripts.12
• Translation: Translators, including those associated with the Dār al-Fonūn (Polytechnic School), introduced European languages and literary styles to Iran. This movement toward simplicity and the adoption of Western narrative techniques—such as the short story and novel—helped writers break away from the inflated, classical prose style. Notable authors like Sadeq Hedayat translated works by writers such as Franz Kafka, further influencing the development of modern psychological and surrealistic themes.12
• European Education: The establishment of modern institutions like the Dār al-Fonūn and the practice of sending young men to study at European universities provided Iranian intellectuals with new scientific skills and exposure to Western literatures. This education fostered a critical perspective on social and political conditions, encouraging writers to move beyond traditional courtly poetry toward independent, socially engaged writing.12