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How did biblical literary criticism use internal and external evidence to study a text’s date and authorship?

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Antique book open to the frontispiece of The Iliad of Homer, showing the title and an engraved portrait of a bearded man, with old books in the background. — literature *The Iliad*, an epic of the Trojan War attributed to the ancient Greek poet Homer, is considered a foundational work of Western literature.

In the study of biblical literature, scholars utilize both internal and external evidence to determine the date and authorship of texts, often employing various methods of biblical criticism.12

Internal Evidence

Internal evidence focuses on the text itself. Literary criticism examines the genre, vocabulary, style, and structure of a document to uncover clues about its origin and function. For example, scholars analyze distinctive linguistic patterns or theological emphases to distinguish between different sources, such as the Yahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomist, and Priestly code sources within the Pentateuch. Additionally, philological criticism studies the grammar and vocabulary of the original languages—Hebrew, Aramaic, and Koine Greek—to place the writing within a specific historical and linguistic context.1234

External Evidence

External evidence involves data outside the direct textual tradition. This includes:
* Historical and Archaeological Context: Scholars use archaeology and historical records to reconstruct the environment in which a text was produced, helping to date the material based on known events or cultural shifts.5
* Comparative Literature: Analyzing non-biblical writings in cognate languages helps clarify the meaning and period of biblical terms.4
* Manuscript Witnesses: For the New Testament, scholars examine thousands of ancient manuscripts, early translations, and citations by early Christian writers to establish the most authoritative text.2

By synthesizing these methods, critics can arrange sources chronologically and better understand the development of biblical literature.2