How did Machado de Assis use irony to criticize Rio de Janeiro’s upper class?

Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis utilized subtle irony and a sophisticated narrative style to develop a mordant social critique of the bourgeoisie in Rio de Janeiro during the second half of the 19th century. Rather than relying on the documentary impulses of realism, he employed an indirect, witty, and often cynical approach to expose human follies, social class disparities, and self-delusion.12

His mastery of irony is most evident in his use of point of view and first-person narration. For example, in Memórias póstumas de Brás Cubas, he features a cynical, upper-class narrator who recounts his life from beyond the grave, allowing Machado to dissect the vanity and moral failings of the elite with detached, biting humor. Similarly, in Dom Casmurro, he uses a first-person perspective to explore a mind warped by jealousy, forcing the reader to navigate the narrator's subjective and potentially unreliable account of his social world. By disguising his deep-rooted pessimism with flippancy and wit, Machado effectively challenged the status quo of his time.21