How did Islam influence musical instruments in medieval Europe?

The influence of Islam on medieval European musical instruments was profound, primarily facilitated through the Muslim presence in Spain, the Crusades, and established trade routes across the Mediterranean. As European musical culture developed, it absorbed and adapted numerous instruments and theoretical concepts from the Islamic world.12

Key instruments introduced or significantly influenced by this contact include:

• Lute: The most notable example, the European lute, derived from the Arab ‘ūd. It was transmitted to Europe via Spain and returning crusaders, eventually evolving into the classic Renaissance instrument.34
• Rebec: This small bowed instrument was adapted from the Islamic rabāb.2
• Kettledrums: Known in Europe as nakers, these originated from the Arabic naqqārah.2
• Wind Instruments: Various vertical flutes and other woodwinds migrated from the Middle East into Europe through the Balkans and other trade corridors.1

While the West retained Eastern elements like melody and drone, it uniquely modified these instruments to suit the emerging requirements of polyphony, ensuring each instrument possessed a distinctive color and power of penetration.1