How are African drums played with hands, sticks, and friction techniques?

In African musical traditions, playing techniques for drums vary significantly based on the instrument's design and cultural context.

• Hands and Sticks: Many drums are played by beating the skin with bare hands, while others are struck using straight, curved, rectangular, or knobbed sticks. For certain instruments, such as hourglass drums, performers may alternate between striking the head with one hand and a stick.12
• Friction Techniques: Friction drums are a distinct category where sound is produced by rubbing a membrane rather than striking it. This is typically achieved by rubbing the drum head with wet or resined fingers, or by manipulating a stick or string passed through or attached to the membrane. These instruments are often associated with ritual contexts, such as the ingungu used in Zulu girls' nubility rites or ceremonies among the Pedi people.312

These methods allow for a wide range of rhythmic and melodic expression, with some drums even capable of transmitting complex linguistic tones and glides through the manipulation of leather lacings.12