Why are closed-habitat bovids usually solitary or monogamous?

Closed-habitat bovids, such as the duiker and dik-dik, are typically solitary or monogamous due to their specific ecological adaptations. These animals have evolved to thrive in dense undergrowth, where they rely on hiding and concealing coloration to avoid predators rather than the safety-in-numbers strategy used by herd-forming species in open habitats.1

Because they browse selectively on nonfibrous vegetation within these dense environments, their food resources are often dispersed in a way that does not support large social groups. Consequently, these bovids are territorial, maintaining individual or pair-bonded ranges to secure necessary resources. While monogamy in mammals is generally rare, it is favored in environments where resources are limited and the survival of offspring may benefit from the defense of a stable territory. In contrast, open-habitat bovids form herds as a primary defense mechanism, as their build is adapted for flight and their coloration is often conspicuous.12