Which caecilian families lack an aquatic larval stage?

Within the order Gymnophiona, the presence of an aquatic larval stage varies by family. While some families, such as Ichthyophiidae and Rhinatrematidae, possess aquatic larvae, several other families do not have an aquatic larval stage.12

According to the annotated classification of caecilians, the following families typically lack an aquatic larval stage:

• Caeciliidae: Most species in this family do not have an aquatic larval stage.1
• Scolecomorphidae: This family lacks an aquatic larval stage.1
• Typhlonectidae: Although these caecilians are aquatic as adults, they are viviparous and do not have a larval stage.1

Additionally, other families such as Dermophiidae, Herpelidae, Indotyphlidae, and Siphonopidae include species that exhibit direct development or viviparity, thereby bypassing the aquatic larval phase common to more primitive amphibians.13