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How do sexual and asexual reproduction differ in tunicates?

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Bright blue sea squirt Rhopalaea crassa with yellow-edged openings grows on a coral reef among various corals in the Philippines. — tunicate Blue spot sea squirt (*Clavelina moluccensis*), a colonial tunicate.

Tunicates utilize both sexual and asexual reproduction, though the processes differ significantly in their biological mechanisms and outcomes.1

Sexual Reproduction

Most tunicates are hermaphroditic, meaning a single individual produces both male and female gametes. Despite this, they generally avoid self-fertilization. In primitive species, eggs are fertilized in the surrounding water, while in others, embryos are retained within the adult's atrium until the larval stage. The resulting larvae are typically motile, using a notochord-supported tail to find a suitable habitat before metamorphosing into adults.12

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction in tunicates occurs primarily through budding, which leads to the formation of colonies. Colonial tunicates, such as sea squirts, can reproduce vegetatively by sending out runners known as stolons; small parts of these stolons form buds that develop into new individuals. In certain thaliaceans, such as dolioloids and salps, reproduction involves a complex alternation of phases where one phase reproduces by budding, while the resulting individuals subsequently engage in sexual reproduction.12