How do mammals move through terrestrial, tree-dwelling, aerial, and aquatic habitats?

Mammals have evolved diverse locomotor adaptations to navigate their specific environments, primarily by overcoming the physical constraints of gravity and drag.12

Terrestrial and Arboreal Locomotion

Terrestrial mammals utilize various modes of progression, ranging from primitive plantigrade walking—where the entire foot contacts the ground—to cursorial running, which may be digitigrade or unguligrade. Some mammals exhibit saltatory (leaping) locomotion, often characterized by elongated hind limbs. For large species, a graviportal mode provides maximum support for their weight.1

Arboreal mammals, or those living in trees, often possess highly mobile limbs and are frequently plantigrade. Adaptations include prehensile tails for grasping, brachiation (arm-swinging), and specialized digits with expanded pads or claws to improve climbing efficiency.1

Aerial and Aquatic Locomotion

• Aerial: Bats are the only mammals capable of true, active flight, which utilizes lift generated by air flowing over wing surfaces. Other mammals, such as flying lemurs, are adapted for gliding, often in conjunction with climbing.12
• Aquatic: Mammals have adapted to water through natatorial (swimming) locomotion. While some semiaquatic species remain relatively unmodified, others like cetaceans are profoundly adapted for life at sea, often using their tails for propulsion. Aquatic mammals must manage buoyancy and overcome water resistance, or drag, to move effectively.132