How do male pigeons establish and defend breeding territories?

In most pigeon species, a male in reproductive condition establishes a territory to facilitate breeding. The process of establishing and defending this area involves several distinct behaviors:

• Advertisement: The male proclaims his territory using an advertisement call, which is typically a variation of the familiar pigeon "coo" sound.1
• Threat Displays: To prevent intrusion by other pigeons, the male first employs threat displays. These include sleeking the plumage, stretching the head forward, and partially raising the wings.1
• Physical Aggression: If threat displays fail to deter an intruder, the male will attack by pecking at the opponent and delivering sharp blows with the carpal joint of the wing.1
• Display Flights: Males often perform display flights in or near the territory to attract unmated females. These displays frequently feature exaggerated movements, slow wing beating, and, in some species, loud clapping noises produced by the wings.1

While some species maintain large territories in scrub or woodland, hole- and cavity-nesting pigeons, such as the rock dove, may only defend the immediate area around their nest site.1