How do bryozoans colonize ship hulls and other submerged surfaces?

Bryozoans, also known as moss animals, are aquatic invertebrates that frequently colonize submerged surfaces, including ship hulls, piers, and water pipes.1

Their colonization process begins with sexual reproduction, where fertilized eggs develop into swimming larvae. These larvae are capable of dispersing through the water to settle on suitable substrates. Once a larva attaches to a surface, it undergoes a transformation to become the first zooid of a new colony.23

From this initial zooid, the colony expands through an asexual process called budding. The resulting zooids remain in intimate contact, forming interconnected structures that can grow into extensive crusts or masses. Because these colonies do not require light, they are well-adapted to thrive in dark, submerged environments where they can avoid competition from algae. This accumulation of organisms on man-made structures is a form of biofouling, which can impact the efficiency of submerged engineering structures.2345