How do amphibian poison glands help defend against predators?

Amphibians possess poison glands within their skin that serve as a primary defense mechanism against predators. These glands secrete a variety of complex toxins, ranging from local irritants and vasoconstrictors to potent neurotoxins and convulsants, which can deter or harm attackers.312

To maximize the effectiveness of these chemical defenses, many highly toxic species exhibit aposematism, a strategy where they display brilliant, contrasting colors—such as red, yellow, or orange—to warn potential predators of their toxicity. By advertising their dangerous nature, these amphibians often avoid the physical injury that could occur during a predator's attack. Additionally, some non-poisonous species gain protection by mimicking the appearance of these toxic, brightly colored amphibians.314

While these secretions are highly effective against many predators, they are primarily specialized chemical defenses unique to the amphibian integument.2